My Final

Final Exam - EDPS 6451 Learning Theories
Katie
December 13, 2007

Schema Theory

Introduction to Schema Theory
Schema theory explains that a learner’s knowledge is stored in their memory as “packets
of knowledge.” New understanding acquired by learners relates to these “packets of
knowledge”, or schemata, and can be added to already present schemata, can allow
schemata to be altered, or can create new schemata. Instructional designers can facilitate
meaningful learning by using various strategies to activate schemata and help learners to
use their prior knowledge in gaining new understanding.

Theoretical Principles
Learners can acquire more meaningful learning and remember better when they relate
new information to prior knowledge.
Schemata – “packets of knowledge” stored in the memory
Mental Models – schemata that guide the learner as they learn new information or solve
problems
Accretion – “fact learning” – new information is added to already present schemata
Tuning – schemata are altered, or “evolve”, based on new knowledge and experience
Restructuring – new schemata are created to “replace or incorporate old ones”
Keys to automating existing schemata to lighten the cognitive load of the learner and
therefore facilitate further meaningful learning:
Activate Prior Knowledge
•Advance Organizers – introductory materials that “bridge the gap”
between prior knowledge and new information to be learned
They should 1) have a short set of verbal or visual information
2) be presented prior to learning to-be-learned information
3) contain NO specific content from the to-be-learned information
4) generate logical relationships within elements of to-be-learned
information
5) influence encoding process to create a new general organization
Examples: Analogies
Images
Examples
Text to self, text to text, text to world, text to media
KWL
•Schema Signals – texts and other learning tools draw on a familiar
structure to aid learners (familiar text, familiar organization of
information, familiar problem types, familiar cultural structures,
familiar government structures, etc.)
Make Instructional Materials Meaningful
•Comparative Organizers – provides a means for systematically comparing and contrasting concepts
Examples: Concept Tree
Rational Set Generator
Frames
Graphic Organizers
Venn Diagram
•Elaboration – progressively more detail is to be elaborated in each level
of instruction from the most general to the most specific content
• Conceptual Models – any of the models invented by teachers, designers,
etc. to help make some target system understandable
*Designers must identify mental models being used by learners:
observe them, ask for explanations, ask for predictions, ask
them to teach other students
Use thought-demanding activities to promote skillful use of mental models.
Use prior knowledge in new contexts to apply mental models.

Interactional Theories of Cognitive Development :
Vygotsky
Introduction to Vygotsky
Development does not proceed toward socialization, it is the conversion of social relation
into mental functions.
Three Themes:
1) reliance on a genetic or developmental method
2) higher mental processes in the individual have their origin in the social
processes
3) mental processes can be understood only if we understand the tools and signs
that mediate them
The Social Formation of Mind
The interrelations of
The individual
The interpersonal
The cultural-historical

Vygotsky’s Developmental Method:
Mediation through signs – changing a stimulus situation in the process of
responding to it; The conversion from the social to the psychological is not
direct. Instead it is accomplished through some kind of link; a tool or sign.
Indexical Signs – those that bear a cause-effect relationship
Ex. Smoke is a sign of fire
Iconic Signs – images or pictures of objects for which they stand
Ex. Computer icons
Symbolic Signs – bear an abstract relationship with objects or
events for which they stand
Ex. Language and mathematics
Emphasized culture
Based in human activity
Theoretical Principles
Social Origins of Thinking
Internalization – any higher mental function necessarily goes thorough an external
stage in its development because it is initially a social function. When a
child internalizes meaning and subsequently uses it, the interpersonal
activity has been transformed into an intrapersonal one.
Zone of Proximal Development – a gap between a child’s actual developmental
level as determined by independent problem solving and the higher level
of potential development as determined through problem solving under
adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers – the zone of
proximal development defines those functions that have not yet matured
but are in the process of maturation
Intersubjectivity – Partners in learning activities must come to some degree of
joint understanding about the task at hand. They must co-construct the
solution: joint decision making, shared power and shared authority.
Inequality between partners resides only in their respective levels of
understanding.
Implications
Learning pulls development.
“The only good learning is that which is in advance of development.”
Instruction should be scaffolded in the zone of proximal development.
“The only good kind of instruction is that which marches ahead of
development and leads it.”
Intersubjective interaction is important.
It is not enough for partners to simply work together or for one partner to
dominate and demonstrate solutions to the other. They must co-construct
the solution.
Teach thinking versus content specific skills.
Learning involves solving problems that arise out of conflict-generating
dilemmas in everyday situations.
Interaction in the Zone of Proximal Development
Ideal partners should not be equal in terms of their present level of
knowledge and skill.
Learning is not uni-directional. A partner can cause one to learn incorrect
concepts or cause confusion about what one knows, however this
confusion and the consequent clarification can cause big leaps in
understanding. Once confusion is clarified the information is more
solid than ever.
Role of language and other sign systems
A consequence of internalization is the ability to use signs in increasingly
elaborative ways that extend the boundaries of children’s understanding.
•Play – In play children project themselves into the adult activities of their
culture and rehearse their future roles and values.
•Language – Language constitutes the most important sign-using behavior
in cognitive development because it frees children from the
constraints of their immediate environment.
Language provides for decontextualization.
Inner speech functions as a cognitive mediator.

Final Project
Topic C: You are the Science teacher for a 6th Grade (typical) class who is going to
participate in the Science Fair. Design instruction to help the students prepare their
projects using Schema Theory and Vygotsky. Remember that the Science Fair’s emphasis
is on the application of the scientific method.
Day 1 – Introduction to the Science Fair
Overview of the upcoming Science Fair – The teacher will show the students how the
Science Fair is very similar to the History Fair the students have already done. Schemata:
Activate Prior Knowledge: Schema Signals Students still have packets of information
from the History Fair to be used in pinpointing the differences between the two fairs.
Comparative Organizers
Day 2 – Introduction to the Scientific Method
Scientific Method Mental Models: Conceptual Models
Purpose (Problem / Question)
Research
Hypothesis
Experiment
Analysis
Conclusion
Scientific Method Journals – Students will create a journal in which they will record the
steps of scientific method and their definitions. Language (Learning the language
associated with the method being used will help the students be able to decontextualize
the process later.) The students will be asked to fill in the definitions they already know.
Activate Prior Knowledge: Advance Organizers Then, the class will discuss the
definitions, allowing an opportunity for students to check what they wrote. They will add
to their definitions Tuning, correct definitions that were incorrect Restructuring, or fill in
definitions they did not previously know Accretion. They will add to the journal
throughout the process as they learn more, discover new details and learn helpful hints.
Day 3 – Introduction to the Scientific Method Continued
Clothes Pin Activity – guides students through a simple experiment, focusing on all the
steps of the scientific method Elaboration (start simple); Scaffolding; Identify mental
models being used by learners: observe them, ask for explanations, ask for predictions,
ask them to teach other students; Use Thought-Demanding Activities to promote skillful
use of mental models; Zone of Proximal Development (teacher guides students to make
discoveries during experimentation and helps them create explanations and conclusions
they could not get on their own)
Day 4 – Purpose
What are you interested in? Play (assume the role of a scientist, select a fun topic)
What topics do you have some knowledge of but would like to know more about?
Schemata
What questions do you have?
Rules, requirements, restrictions set by the school district
Students will brain storm purpose ideas and select one. They will write their topic in the
form of a question. They will be assigned a partner to work with for their science fair
project. The teacher will assign students of varying levels to be partners, making sure
they are students who will cooperate and stay on task together. Interaction in the Zone of
Proximal Development
The students will role-play Play partner situations to model for the rest of the class what
cooperative learning looks like. The role-play will emphasize that each partner needs to
contribute, that both partners need to work together in making decisions and coming up
with ideas and solutions, and that power and authority are equally shared by partners.
Zone of Proximal Development: Intersubjectivity
On this day, students will also begin to keep a journal of all activities related to their
Science Fair project. Language; Mental Models
Days 5-7 – Research Use Prior Knowledge in New Contexts to apply mental models
Sources of information
Encyclopedia
Library books
Multimedia Encyclopedia
Internet
Bibliography
Go over bibliography format and start keeping track of sources used
Students will use at least one of each of the sources from the list above to research the
topic they have chosen. Again, this process is very similar to the research conducted for
the History Fair and the students’ Country Reports. Activate Prior Knowledge: Schema
Signals
Day 8 – Hypothesis
Written as a true statement
Based upon research
It is just fine to have a hypothesis that is incorrect! Learning is not uni-directional. A
partner can cause one to learn incorrect concepts or cause confusion about what one
knows, however this confusion and the consequent clarification can cause big leaps in
understanding. Once confusion is clarified the information is more solid than ever.
Students will write a hypothesis that answers their question (purpose) based upon the
research they have conducted. Scaffolding; Teach thinking
Day 9 – Experiment (Variable)
Materials – for every experiment done in class, students must record materials used
Procedure – for every experiment done in class, students must keep a written list of the
steps in the procedure
Variable – the part of the experiment that changes – the part you are testing
Copter Creatures Activity – Guides students through a slightly more complex experiment
where they must choose their variable, but only one variable. Elaboration (progressively
more detail is to be elaborated in each level of instruction from the most general to the
most specific content); Scaffolding; Identify mental models being used by learners:
observe them, ask for explanations, ask for predictions, ask them to teach other students;
Use Thought-Demanding Activities to promote skillful use of mental models; Zone of
Proximal Development (teacher guides students to make discoveries during
experimentation and helps them create explanations and conclusions they could not get
on their own)
Day 10 – Experiment Continued (Control)
Control – the part of the experiment that does not change – used for comparison
Apple Experiment – Guides students through a slightly more complex, yet incomplete
experiment where they must determine what should have been used as the control. This
experiment will illustrate how vital a control is by asking the students to try to draw
conclusions they cannot make without the control. Elaboration (progressively more detail
is to be elaborated in each level of instruction from the most general to the most specific
content); Scaffolding; Identify mental models being used by learners: observe them, ask
for explanations, ask for predictions, ask them to teach other students; Use Thought-
Demanding Activities to promote skillful use of mental models; Zone of Proximal
Development (teacher guides students to make discoveries during experimentation helps
them create explanations and conclusions they could not get on their own); Learning
pulls development
Day 11 – Experiment Continued (Observations)
Observations – for every experiment done in class, students must keep a log of all
observations made
Yeast Experiment – Guides students through a still more complex experiment where they
must focus specifically on observing exactly what happens to each flask. This includes
drawing diagrams, making detailed descriptions, and recording times when observations
are made. Elaboration (progressively more detail is to be elaborated in each level of
instruction from the most general to the most specific content); Scaffolding; Identify
mental models being used by learners: observe them, ask for explanations, ask for
predictions, ask them to teach other students; Use Thought-Demanding Activities to
promote skillful use of mental models; Zone of Proximal Development (teacher guides
students to make discoveries during experimentation and helps them create explanations
and conclusions they could not get on their own)
Day 12 – Experiment Continued (Culminating Experiment)
Potato Petri Dish Experiment – Guides students through a still more complex experiment
where they must use each of the skills learned from the previous experiments.
Elaboration (progressively more detail is to be elaborated in each level of instruction
from the most general to the most specific content); Scaffolding; Identify mental models
being used by learners: observe them, ask for explanations, ask for predictions, ask them
to teach other students; Use Thought-Demanding Activities to promote skillful use of
mental models; Zone of Proximal Development (teacher guides students to make
discoveries during experimentation and helps them create explanations and conclusions
they could not get on their own)
Day 13 – Experiment Continued (Design Your Own Experiment)
Students will design the experiment they will conduct with their partner. They will make
sure that all aspects of experimental design previously studied and practiced are used.
They will begin their actual experiments at home. Elaboration (progressively more detail
is to be elaborated in each level of instruction from the most general to the most specific
content); Scaffolding; Identify mental models being used by learners: observe them, ask
for explanations, ask for predictions, ask them to teach other students; Use Thought-
Demanding Activities to promote skillful use of mental models; Zone of Proximal
Development: Intersubjectivity
Day 14-15 – Analysis (These days’ activities may need to be delayed while waiting
for experiment results.)
Data, Graphing, and Statistics
Students will use the Yeast Experiment and Potato Petri Dish Experiment to create
graphs, charts, tables, and diagrams to display their data, observations, and results. They
will work with the teacher and each other to write logical and correct conclusions based
on their analysis of the data. Comparative Organizers; Conceptual Models; Zone of
Proximal Development; Intersubjectivity
Day 16-18 – Analysis Continued (These days’ activities may need to be delayed
while waiting for experiment results.)
Students will create graphs, charts, tables, and diagrams to display the data, observations,
and results from their own experiments. They will work as partners to write logical and
correct conclusions based on their analysis of the data. Comparative Organizers;
Conceptual Models; Elaboration; Zone of Proximal Development: Intersubjectivity
Day 19 – Conclusion
Writing a conclusion Language
Explain what happened and why.
Explain whether your hypothesis was correct or not.
Explain what you learned from your experiment.
Explain what you would do differently if you were to do the experiment again.
Students will create written materials explaining their experiment, including each of the
requirements listed above. This is the part of the process when the students put all the
pieces together to make their own logical conclusions about their experiments. Teach
thinking versus content specific skills (Learning involves solving problems that arise out
of conflict-generating dilemmas in everyday situations.) Students may find this a
challenge because they may have observed things in their experiment that are not easily
explained. They may not be sure how to draw conclusions about what happened, but they
will try to. Learning pulls development (“The only good learning is that which is in
advance of development.”)
Day 20-24 – Display Board
Creating a display board Graphic Organizers
Display how you used the Scientific Method.
Display your charts, graphs, etc.
Make the display attractive and easy to read.
Follow the district guidelines for creating your display (height, depth, etc.).
Students will create a display board showing how their experiments utilized each step of
the scientific method. The board will also display select written materials created during
the experiment and analysis stages of their experiments. The display is similar to a
History Fair Display, but there are some differences. The teacher will post examples of
each type of display to highlight the differences between the two. Comparative
Organizers
Day 25-27 – Written Materials
Title Page
Journal
Research
Process
Materials
Observations
Analysis (charts, graphs, diagrams)
Conclusion
Bibliography
The students will compile the written materials they have been creating throughout the
entire process. The materials will be typed and bound in a project folder. Language;
Graphic Organizers
Day 28 – Science Fair Logistics
Entry Form
Judging Form
The teacher will help students fill out the necessary forms for entrance into the Science
Fair and will explain how they will be judged using the judging form. Each of these
forms ties directly into the process the students have been learning and using throughout
the entire unit. Make Instructional Materials Meaningful
Day 29-30 – Science Fair Logistics Continued
Interview Skills
Students will practice writing and answering mock interview questions with their partner.
Language; Zone of Proximal Development: Intersubjectivity; Play (role-play being a
judge)
Day 31-33 – Teacher Preview / Editing and Revising
The teacher will preview each project display and all written materials to ensure students
have done things correctly, and more importantly to help ensure student learning has
occurred. The teacher will help edit and revise as needed, and will help students make
connections that may be missing. Accretion, Tuning, Restructuring; Zone of Proximal
Development
Day 34 – Science Fair
Students will participate in the school Science Fair where they will be judged according
to the district judging form and will be interviewed about their project. Students will also
have the opportunity to view other projects. Make instruction meaningful
The top two projects from each class will go on to the district Science Fair, and select
projects may even go on to the regional Science Fair.
The Entire Process
The entire concept of having students participate in a Science Fair is firmly based in
Schema Theory and Vygotsky’s theories. The idea is that students will be learning
through experimentation, building on prior knowledge, but scaffolding / elaborating on
that knowledge to push forward to concepts beyond their independent capacity.
The whole point of learning the Scientific Method is to enable students to be able to learn
by solving problems that arise out of conflict-generating dilemmas in everyday situations.
By participating in the Science Fair, students are developing mental models to help them
in future real-life situations, thus they are internalizing the processes by participating in
authentic learning experiences. Accretion, tuning, and restructuring occur throughout the
process of every experiment as well as when developing conclusions for each individual
experiment.
An advanced organizer is used before beginning the unit, but on a smaller scale the
practice of activating schemata is used on a daily basis through scaffolding and
elaboration. Forming hypotheses (educated guesses) is effective because students must
activate schemata to solve new problems beyond the levels of development they are
currently at.
The Scientific Method is ultimately practiced to teach thinking versus content specific
skills. The variety of experiments used in this unit can help with internalization and
decontextualization of these thinking skills. In the end, the hope is that students will be
able to build solid schemata for solving future, real-world problems.